Universe Essay Example For Students

Universe Essay It is always a mystery about how the universe began, whether if and when it will end. Astronomers construct hypotheses called cosmological models that try to find the answer. There are two types of models: Big Bang and Steady State. However, through many observational evidences, the Big Bang theory can best explain the creation of the universe. The Big Bang model postulates that about 15 to 20 billion years ago, the universe violently exploded into being, in an event called the Big Bang. Before the Big Bang, all of the matter and radiation of our present universe were packed together in the primeval fireballan extremely hot dense state from which the universe rapidly expanded. We will write a custom essay on Universe specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now 1 The Big Bang was the start of time and space. The matter and radiation of that early stage rapidly expanded and cooled. Several million years later, it condensed into galaxies. The universe has continued to expand, and the galaxies have continued moving away from each other ever since. Today the universe is still expanding, as astronomers have observed. The Steady State model says that the universe does not evolve or change in time. There was no beginning in the past, nor will there be change in the future. This model assumes the perfect cosmological principle. This principle says that the universe is the same everywhere on the large scale, at all times.2 It maintains the same average density of matter forever. There are observational evidences found that can prove the Big Bang model is more reasonable than the Steady State model. First, the redshifts of distant galaxies. Redshift is a Doppler effect which states that if a galaxy is moving away, the spectral line of that galaxy observed will have a shift to the red end. The faster the galaxy moves, the more shift it has. If the galaxy is moving closer, the spectral line will show a blue shift. If the galaxy is not moving, there is no shift at all. However, as astronomers observed, the more distance a galaxy is located from Earth, the more redshift it shows on the spectrum. This means the further a galaxy is, the faster it moves. Therefore, the universe is expanding, and the Big Bang model seems more reasonable than the Steady State model. The second observational evidence is the radiation produced by the Big Bang. The Big Bang model predicts that the universe should still be filled with a small remnant of radiation left over from the original violent explosion of the primeval fireball in the past. The primeval fireball would have sent strong shortwave radiation in all directions into space. In time, that radiation would spread out, cool, and fill the expanding universe uniformly. By now it would strike Earth as microwave radiation. In 1965 physicists Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson detected microwave radiation coming equally from all directions in the sky, day and night, all year.3 And so it appears that astronomers have detected the fireball radiation that was produced by the Big Bang. This casts serious doubt on the Steady State model. The Steady State could not explain the existence of this radiation, so the model cannot best explain the beginning of the universe. Since the Big Bang model is the better model, the existence and the future of the universe can also be explained. Around 15 to 20 billion years ago, time began. The points that were to become the universe exploded in the primeval fireball called the Big Bang. The exact nature of this explosion may never be known. However, recent theoretical breakthroughs, based on the principles of quantum theory, have suggested that space, and the matter within it, masks an infinitesimal realm of utter chaos, where events happen randomly, in a state called quantum weirdness.4 Before the universe began, this chaos was all there was. At some time, a portion of this randomness happened to form a bubble, with a temperature in excess of 10 to the power of 34 degrees Kelvin. Being that hot, naturally it expanded. .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e , .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e .postImageUrl , .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e , .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e:hover , .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e:visited , .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e:active { border:0!important; } .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e:active , .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ub62e6dcbc37224db8bba54b80f3a339e:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Bank Of New York And Its History Essay For an extremely brief and short period, billionths of billionths of a second, it inflated. At the end of the period of inflation, the universe may have a diameter of a few centimetres. The

King Kong Movie Review Essay Sample

King Kong Movie Review Essay Sample King Kong Movie Review Essay Sample King Kong Movie Review Essay Sample As we know, the love story of Beauty and the Beast, or rather a story of love for the beautiful monster has more than seventy years. Back in the twenties of the last century, the film was shot on Lost World by Arthur Conan Doyle, the story of a scientific expedition to a certain plateau where they found a variety of preserved prehistoric animals. It is unlikely that modern audiences have never heard of the phrase – King Kong. It has become a household name and is familiar even to infants. Without King Kong, there would not be the genre of â€Å"Monster Movie† (monster movie). Without it, there would not be Lord of the Rings because it is the King Kong that in 1933 impressed Peter Jackson so much that he wanted to become a director. One might expect that by todays standards the old King Kong would seem naive and ridiculous. However, this film is not a completely wasted former â€Å"margin of safety†. Directing workshop, advanced â€Å"special effects†, a fascinating plot, neat camera work, and a very good performance of actors are five â€Å"gold† terms of success of any film, even if it was shot a century ago. King Kong Movie – Original vs. Remake The original King Kong came out in 1933 and brought great financial profit to its producers. The plot of the film is simple. Fay Wray is hired by Robert Armstrong as a star in a film that he is making. The film should be shot on a mysterious island. The place is the home of the angry creature – Kong who kidnaps Wray. Later, King Kong is captured and taken to New York to be the part of the Broadway show. This allows King Kong to escape. Then, the evens are transferred to the Empire State Building. The human characters are one-dimensional. For example, Denham does not learn any lessons in the end of the film. In the center of the film, there is Kong and a tragic fable of Beauty and the Beast. Kong has strong impulse to protect and save Ann from predators. His tenderness is emphasized in the film. In King Kong, the true monsters are the fearful villagers, but not the rampaging creature. Of course, Kong sometimes is brutal and prone to vengeance. He opens his vulnerable heart only to have it broken and chooses a fate that means his death. The death of Kong is a loss that must occur and that the viewer should survive. To understand this, we must remember that at this period of history the environmental movement, which is so popular nowadays, did not exist. That is why, no one is worried about the environment and a strange creature. Other feature of the film is a revolutionary approach to musical arrangement as music by Max Steiner always accompanies and emotionally colors onscreen action, which in those days was not yet a common practice (e.g. in Dracula in 1931 music was only in the start and end credits). â€Å"It was Beauty killed The Beast† that is the last line in the original film and its meaning has not lost any of its power. It means simply that Kong is so infatuated with Ann that he, protecting her from harm, is going on a rampage that results in his death. That line, I think, is well-revealed in the original movie. In 1976, the new redesigned version was released. The difference between them is seen from the first look at the titles. Although in both films the viewer sympathizes with Kong and what happens to him, in the first version the audience does not feel guilt for the tragedy of Kong’s death, while when watching a remake there is blame attached to the death. There are a few â€Å"modernizing† changes, but the basic frame is left intact. Kong is the most thoroughly explored character in the film. The main female character of the first King Kong is totally confused and the viewer has such a feeling that she is on the edge of a precipice called â€Å"life†, not knowing what to do – jump down or try to fight for her continued existence. Dwan, on the contrary, â€Å"is the aspiring actress, who is found floating on a life raft in the middle of the ocean by the crew of Petrox Explorer† (â€Å"Monster Shack Movie Reviews†). The situation with the appearance of female characters is similar: whereas in the original version the actress is dressed modestly and even mediocre, her replacement’s entire appearance and looks in the movie (1976) represent wealth and confidence (â€Å"You Need Furs: The Meaning of Kong 76†). There is also a difference in the way Kong is created: in the first film he is a doll, while the director of the second one decides to go by the simplest way – the role of Kong is played by the man. Some changes are connected with the objective circumstances. For example, since in 1976 the tallest building in New York changed, Laurentiis transferred the end of the pictures from the Empire State Building to the building of the World Trade Center. We should agree with the point of view of James Berardinelli who says that â€Å"from a cinematography standpoint, King Kong impresses. Much of the location footage is epic in scope, especially the scene where the initial motorboat penetrates the fog bank surrounding Kongs island† (Berardinelli). In 1976, the distinguished feature of King Kong was that the plot of the film was brought up to date. In particular, the story had added some anthropologist who revealed some secrets. Under the existence of such a large monkey, scientific basis is left out. All these â€Å"dinosaurs, crocodiles, insects† part of an â€Å"abandoned the world† in the first film have been thrown out too. In the 1933 film, Ann Darrow is the character around which all events occur, but she is not a â€Å"deep† hero. In the remake, Dwan is a more richly realized figure. She is in tune with Kongs feelings for her and, at the same time, she is terrified of him (â€Å"You Need Furs: The Meaning of Kong 76†). The circumstances in which the film was shot and the historical background could not be reflected in the 1976 remake. It was the era when the questions of environmental protection were raised, and King Kong was not an exception. So, the death of Kong is not already necessary, but it is left as in the original. In the second release of King Kong, Denham is replaced by Fred Wilson who is the oil company executive with a set of not very good human qualities. He comes across Kong by chance and his decision to take him to New York is connected with the desire to resume his ailing financial stability. Thus, the remake is broadly faithful to the original story, but with some differences. â€Å"In the original, Kong is a violent creature†¦ while in the remake he only causes death when is forced into a confrontation† (â€Å"You Need Furs: The Meaning of Kong 76†). In the 1933 film, we see that there is no character who is not responsible for the death of Kong, while in the remake Prescott plays a significant part in it (â€Å"You Need Furs: The Meaning of Kong 76†). Another difference is that the originality and charm of the island has gone and this is undisputed. In the first King Kong, he battles different creatures and all this is well-directed. In the remake, hero does not come across monsters. In fact, Kong has to do that in the original. Moreover, the â€Å"original King Kong is a beautifully crafted masterpiece, full of excitement, atmosphere, emotion, and tragedy† as opposite to the new one (â€Å"Monster Shack Movie Reviews†). One more point is that the relationship melodrama Beauty and the Beast,, which is manifested in the old version, is not so openly compassionate and demonstrative by squeezing tears, as it is practiced in the remake of 1976 and later – of 2005. Despite some inevitable naive scene moments, the first King Kong truly touches the soul. It should be mentioned that King Kong of 1976 â€Å"has something the original lacked: a conscience. And that conscience was personified by the Princeton anthropologist, Jack Prescott† (â€Å"You Need Furs: The Meaning of Kong 76†). The third version was made by Jackson in 2005. The film King Kong is the new sequel to King Kong, which was filmed in 1933. The budget of this film is 207 million dollars. This is a picture made by a talented director in the fantasy genre. The film is truly Jackson scope, which has everything: a super special effects and wonderful cast. The really smart move of Jackson, in contrast to the 1976’ version, is keeping the story in the 1930s. In combination with the latest developments in the field of effects, it gives a striking effect. Another miracle Jackson made concerned a giant monkey. King Kong became alive and in the most natural way. He is the most actual computer character I have ever seen. What is most surprising is that King Kong does not only look real, but he also plays like the real thing. Moreover, under the guidance of Jackson, Kong completely overshadows all â€Å"live† partners, being the so-called â€Å"aliving† thing. Attention is drawn to the main female role. Naomi Watts is a small and fragile woman. Physique is similar to its prototype from 1933 played by Fay Wray. In any case, she is similar to the original to a greater extent than the luxurious and busty Jessica Lange flashed in the remake of 1976. John Guillermin does not pay attention to the fact that the figure of the heroine is of great importance, but for his remake it is not so important. Jackson shows us the ordinary girl and not only for the comparison with the scale of the gorilla. It is equally important for him to show a nice, modest girl who manages to fall in love with the hyper-male, the eighth wonder of the world. In a film about love of Beauty and the Beast, Naomi Watts plays so convincingly and subtly as she previously played in the movie with the scenes from real life. Her talent and absolute sincerity make a fantastic story in a sample of high drama where the borders between fiction and reality are wiped off. Unlike her predecessors, Watts creates a truly interesting, colorful character, which awakens in us a sense of responsibility for her life. The undoubted advantage of the new remake is the fact that a girl has the background, which helps us understand her nature better. This young actress is not only beautiful and talented, but she is also characterized by a heightened sense of self-esteem. However, to squeeze out more tears from an unsuspecting viewer, the author of the new King Kong (2005) does not consider it shameful to spend some catchy analogy with the story of Samson and Delilah and play climactic scenes through purely â€Å"cartoon† action using almost Shakespearean passions and other heavy arsenal. Despite the aura of high romance surrounding Kong and Ann, their relationships are spelled very realistically and not without a humor. Consider, for example, how resentful at her King Kong is after a fight with dinosaurs and she gets into the pose. He leaves, allegedly intending to leave her there alone, but he wants her to call him. When she calls, he picks her up immediately and readily. Jackson manages to take an unforgettable chase scene first when a mad crowd of people and dinosaurs are hilariously rushing in a strange direction, crushing and trampling each other and throwing each other into the abyss and the nearby ditch. However, we face a classic gloss. Despite the fact that the last version runs longer by 88 minutes than King Kong of 1933, Jackson tries to remain true to the original, but he also creates an epic movie for the modern audience (â€Å"King Kong Comparison†). The entire first hour of the picture gives the plot of the history and there happens absolutely nothing. However, even with the passive material, the director of the movie is able to make the audience empathize with what is going on, completely dropping out of reality. The immersion in the New York of 30th happens instantly and the escape from the abyss of retro is absolutely impossible. In a world where you find yourself one on one with nature and with yourself, there is no need to pretend. In general, each hero behaves in accordance with the logic of his character, which we catch before; just here on the island the essence of each is particularly brighter. The difference between the original version and the 2005 remake of King Kong is remarkable. However, the director of the film tries to reveal it from another point of view. In the original version, Kong is shown as a violent beast and a real threat to the humanity, whereas in the remake the character of Kong is more humanized. Nonetheless, I should agree that both films’ underlying messages can be very unnoticed with all the action, adventuring, and amazing special effects going on in the film. This ultimately makes it harder to pick out how power obsessed America was in the original, and how destructive we really are with nature today (â€Å"King Kong Remake Analysis†). Undoubtedly, plots of films are the same, but the dynamics of their development often differs substantially. The latter is explained by different views on certain events of films’ creators. For instance, in the new version negative and destructive impact on nature caused by humans is more pronounced. Moreover, understanding of inner world of King Kong is increased because he becomes an important part of the nature (â€Å"King Kong Remake Analysis†). In the original, the love of Driscoll is a clear demonstration that only through risking his life he is able to get love and respect of a woman. That is why, he so fearlessly rushes into the battle with the beast. It seems that Andrien Brody does the same in his version, but the attitude to Ann’s rescue is less motivated. â€Å"This is even truer in New York, where Driscoll’s reunification with Darrow atop the Empire State Building after Kong’s death has none of the pathos of the original† (Wartenberg). We can agree with Thomas E. Wartenberg that this is one of the problems with remakes. While they need to retain major elements of the original film in order to be a remake of it, they also have to fiddle with elements that seem arbitrary, offensive, or outmoded. The problem is that works of art are, as Hegel said, organic wholes, so that all of the elements are internally related to one another. Changing one has ramifications for all of the others. As Peter Jackson’s King Kong demonstrates, it is not easy to recreate an organic whole once you change one of its elements (Wartenberg). If we use the terminology of the Moscow conceptual school, then Jackson’s King Kong is an absolute picture with the most expressive and full accumulation of the collective unconscious and the collective conscious., At least, the viewer wants to lay out his metaphors on the shelves. In the end, the film lets everyone remember something personal while looking at a monkey, which being in a snowy New York grips the blondes in a row, hoping to find a particular one; or how having found her, turns around on the lake ice; or watching as Kong slides from the spire of the Empire State Building, we might think how great it is that we live in the time when the physical obstacles for the movie do not exist and the camera can track anything. King Kong made by Peter Jackson is a true masterpiece, combining a well-designed, exciting plot, great acting game, and the truly fantastic level of computer technology, which allows the audience to feel for a while like Alice in Wonderland, because so reliable and physically palpable is the world created on the screen. I think this is a film for all tastes. Those who expect exciting adventures will enjoy them in full. Those who wait a love story will see something to think about. I think that the modern version is the most touching and wonderful. The music adds even more poignancy. There are times when you cannot hold back the tears. Everything is so wonderfully shot; the scenery is like the real; Kong is as a true gorilla; and it is difficult to say at once that this is a merit of computer graphics. I think that in the next century King Kong will be interesting to watch too because shooting is really unique. The story itself is unique – the love of King Kong, a huge gorilla ape, for a beautiful girl for whom he is able to sacrifice even his life. The result of the creation of the film is not just a movie about a huge gorilla. It is filled with tragic and profound understanding of being a man in an unknown world. The intervention in his love of a man-destroyer raises a lot of questions, including the protection, but not the destruction of animals. We should not disturb their usual habitat because the animal is dangerous only if it is touched. No wonder, many researchers call the fact that humans appeared and spread all around the Earth as one of the biggest of environmental disasters of ancient times. The global environmental crisis has gone so far nowadays that disastrous consequences are almost inevitable, and we can talk only about their mitigation. In my opinion, King Kong is a good reminder about it. So, humans provoke aggressive behavior, and animals have to defend themselves and their loved ones. For the sake of his love, King Kong is ready to fight not only with a huge snake, but with an army too. The film has a very deep meaning and this is a huge merit of the director who has created a masterpiece. Obviously, different versions of King Kong are worth seeing: they have their own charm. It is better to see once than to hear about them twice. I recommend everyone to plunge into this unique atmosphere of the primitive and the modern.

Identity theft Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Identity theft - Essay Example Credit card fraud falls under the category identity theft. Credit card fraud means a fraud or theft committed, using a credit card or any similar payment mechanism. The intention of such a fraud is to obtain unauthorized funds from an account or receive goods without paying. It is estimated that the cost of credit frauds runs in to billions of dollars annually. Credit card fraud begins with either compromise of the account information or theft of the physical card. The drastic increase of credit cards has made data base security lapses very costly. If a credit card is stolen, it can be reported quickly by the owner, but a compromised account can be concealed by a thief for weeks or months. In most cases the owner or the credit card holder may not be able to discover the fraudulent use till he receives the billing statement which is delivered only once per month. When a credit card is stolen or lost, it remains unknown to the bank till the owner informs them that the card is lost. So it is possible for a stealer to make purchases till the card is cancelled. Signature panel is the only common security measures on all cards, but signatures are relatively easy to counterfeit. In some cases, credit cards bear the holder’s photograph. However, self serve payment system such as kiosks, gas station, which are used by the thieves, have no way to verify the card holders’ identity. Nowadays many websites which contain card information such as name of the card holder, account number, expiration date and verification code etc.

Management in a Globalised World Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Management in a Globalised World - Assignment Example Increasing number of companies concentrate more resources, time, and efforts for being a true corporate responsible citizens. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a concept has many various definitions and interpretations. CSR is defined as a â€Å"management concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and interactions with their stakeholders† (United Nations Industrial Development Organization, n.d.: n.p.). Therefore, CSR is a concept built upon three major pillars, including: economic, social, and environmental. There are numerous social and environmental issues, which the companies may address in order to improve social welfare and contribute to positive environmental footprint. The key CSR issue vary from environmental management, responsible sourcing, and eco-efficiency to labour standards, social equity, employee and community relations, etc. (United Nations Industrial Development Organization, n.d). As it is forecasted that the world population will exceed 9 billion by 2050, the problem of fresh water supply will be quite serious (Brownlee and Elias, 2014), management of scarce water resources remains to be one of the important discussions among the scientists, environmentalists, and other professionals. Mindful use of scarce natural resources such a water is also an important issue in agendas of many large corporations operating in food and drink industry. Either being driven by ethical considerations or by business profitability issues many company adopt various CSR initiatives related to responsible water management. One of such corporations is a global leader in drinks industry, Coca-Cola. Water stewardship is one of the key elements of Coca-Cola’s system and value chain (Sustainability report 2013/2014). The company recognises the necessity to maintain a â€Å"sufficient quantity of safe, accessible water from sustainable supplies† (Coca-Cola

CATFISH - APPLYING A METHOD OF RHETORICAL CRITICISM Research Paper

CATFISH - APPLYING A METHOD OF RHETORICAL CRITICISM - Research Paper Example When evaluating the movie in these terms, it is one which can be seen as the accepted and rejected ideologies of structure that are currently within society. Justification The popularity of â€Å"Catfish† is one which continues to grow in society, specifically because of the initial responses which occurred from the audience and critics within society. The movie is important for two reasons. The first is that it shows today’s culture and the way in which it is constructed in terms of relationships, identity and technology. The second is from the reaction which occurred in society, specifically which led to widespread popularity not for the movie, but instead because of the majority of individuals which would not believe that the movie was realistic. These two constructs show that there is an important rhetoric which links to the movie and which provides an understanding of how identity is currently formed within society. A majority of Catfish’s audience were angr y with the filmmakers and with the film’s advertisement campaign. Critics were saying this is the type of film Alfred Hitchcock would direct, but this is clearly not the type of movie he would be involved in. Trailers for the film â€Å"hinted of Blair Witch Project-like-shaky-hand horror.† (Tech Cocktail). Many people questioned the documentary’s credibility as well calling it a hoax and believing it was set-up, as opposed to being a genuine documentary. Most stated that they would not be able to admit or believe that the outcome from the movie could be true or whether it was another deception from the filmmakers. Many believed that, since the film was about deception, the filmmakers also had the same deceiving commentary with the documentary. The strong debates which came out of the movie, as well as the power which this particular film had are the important elements to look at with the rhetorical criticism as well as the understanding of society and culture i n reaction to the movie. The attention which â€Å"Catfish† has brought proves that the topic remains relevant to study at this particular cultural moment because it encompasses many aspects of our use of the Internet and how it has changed not only how we communicate, but how it has changed our lives completely. With the advent of social media, sites such as Facebook have changed the world and the ways in which we communicate with others on a global scale. Catfish draws in on how the Internet, Google, Facebook and etc. can impact our lives in so many different ways. It speaks volume about our current times, specifically in regards to online dating and how it can have a negative impact on our lives. We never really stop to think about its downsides and its dangers. The Internet has made our lives so much easier and we have access to infinite amounts of information at the tips of our fingers. There is little reason for any to question the tool, specifically because it is now b elieved to be revolutionary making many blind about some of the realities which come with the use of the tool.    The Internet, online dating, and social media networks are things that a majority of the world’s population uses on a daily basis for just about everything and anything. The urgency; however, is the way in which it is

Analysis of of Quercetin in Camellia Sinensis Extracts

Analysis of of Quercetin in Camellia Sinensis Extracts ABSTRACT A precise and feasible reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatographic (RP-HPLC) method for the novel analysis of of Quercetin in aqueous and alcoholic extracts of Camellia sinensis extracts with internal standard has been developed. The analysis was carried out on a Phenomenax-C18 column (250 Ãâ€" 4.6mm, 5ÃŽ ¼m). reversed-phase column, using a mixture of acetonitrile and 0.1% orthophosphoric acid in water at 60:40 ratio as the mobile phase; Propyl paraben was used as the internal standard. The linearity range of the Quercetin was found to be in 1-25  µg/ml and the retention times were found to be 3.3 and 5.6 min for Quercetin and Propyl paraben respectively. The accuracy was good and recovery values for Quercetin ranged from 100 to 102% respectively. The proposed novel method is precise and feasible for the determination of Quercetin with internal standard in a short analytical runtime. The method seems to be suitable for routine analysis in quality control laboratories an d research institutes. Keywords: Quercetin, HPLC, Propyl paraben, Validation. Introduction Quercetin (Fig. 1) chemically 2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-3,5,7-trihydroxy-4H-chromen-4-one is a plant pigment (flavonoid) found in many plants and foods, such as red wine, onions, green tea, apples, berries,  Ginkgo biloba. It is used for treating conditions of the  heart  and  blood  vessels including â€Å"hardening of the  arteries† (atherosclerosis),  high cholesterol,  heart disease, and circulation problems (1-3). It is also used to treat inflammation,  asthma,  gout,  viral infections,  chronic fatigue  syndrome (CFS), preventing  cancer, and for treating chronic infections of the  prostate (4-7). Quercetin is also used to increase endurance and improve athletic performance. Tooth decay is most common infectious oral disease that afflicts 95% of the human beings. The flavonoids Quercetin found in green tea can stop the formation of dental plaques and tooth decay. Fig.1 : Chemical structure of Quercetin Some analytical methods were developed for analysis of quercetin by spectrophotometric (8-10), HPLC (11-13), HPTLC (14-16), electrochemical detection (17). In spite of its wide economical importance, a rapid and efficient method forits identification and quantification is necessary. To the best of our knowledge, there is no published method for the determination of quercetin in Camellia sinensis extracts with propyl paraben as internal standard. The aim of the present study was to develop a rapid, economical, precise and accurate reversed-phase HPLC method for quantifying quercetin in aqueous and alcoholic extracts of Camellia sinensis. Materials and Methods Acetonitrile (HPLC grade, MERCK), Water (HPLC grade, Thomas Baker) and orthophosphoric acid (HPLC grade), Quercetin and Propyl paraben are procured from local analytical laboratories. Instrumentation and chromatographic conditions HPLC is a chromatographic technique used to separate a mixture of compounds in analytical chemistry and biochemistry with the purpose of identifying, quantifying purifying the individual components of the mixture. The system consisted of UFLC-Shimadzu make LC-20AD with PDA detector. The data acquisitionwas performed by LC solutions software. The chromatographic separation was achieved on Phenomenax-C18 column (250 Ãâ€" 4.6mm, 5ÃŽ ¼m) column. The elution was isocratic with mobile phase of 0.1% orthophosphoric acid in water and acetonitrile (60:40, v/v). The flow rate was 1.0 mL/ min and yielded a backpressure of about 57 bar. The column temperature was maintained at 40 °C, the detection was monitored at a wavelength of 262 nm and injection volume was 10  µL. UFLC is suitable for separation of Quercetin with propyl paraben as internal standard. The chromatographic conditions are shown in Table 1. Table 1: The chromatographic conditions of the developed method Plant material (Camellia sinensis) Dried leaves of Camellia sinensis i.e Green tea are collected from Doddabetta Tea Factory, Ooty, Tamilnadu and identified by Dr. K. Mruthunjaya, Asst. Professor, Department of Pharmacognosy, JSSCP, Mysore. The procured leaves were used for the preparation of alcoholic and aqueous extract. Extraction Methodology: Alcoholic Extract of Camellia sinensis Alcoholic extract was prepared by hot reflux extraction method on a water bath temperature maintained at 78 °C for 2 hours. The dried coarsely powdered leaves of Camellia sinensis (550g) were extracted in 3 batches (150g each). The obtained extract was filtered and solvent was distilled out up to required concentration and combined extract was spray dried to get alcoholic extract of Camellia sinensis and stored in a dessicator. Aqueous Extract of Camellia sinensis Aqueous extract was prepared by hot reflux extraction method on a water bath temperature maintained at 80 °C for 2 hours. The dried coarsely powdered leaves of Camellia sinensis (550g) were extracted in 3 batches (150g each). The obtained extract was filtered and solvent was distilled out up to required concentration and combined extract was spray dried to get aqueous extract of Camellia sinensis and stored in a dessicator. Drying of Extract: Prepared extracts were dried using Spray dryer. Parameters maintained for Spray drying are Inlet temperature maintained at 70-80 °C, Outlet temperature maintained at 50-60 °C, aspiration rate 1200 rpm per min, feed pump 2ml per min respectively. PREPARATION OF SOLUTIONS Preparation of mobile phase The content of the mobile phase was prepared from Acetonitrile, filtered and degassed mixture of and water and orthophosphoric acid in the ratio of 60:40 v/v. Preparation of standard solutions About 10 mg of pure standards of Quercetin and Propyl paraben were accurately weighed and dissolved separately in two 10 mL standard flask and dissolved in methanol to get standard stock solutions of concentration of 1 mg/mL (1000  µg/mL). From the prepared stock solution an intermediate stock solution was prepared which contains 100  µg/mL of Quercetin. From this intermediate stock solution serial dilutions were made to obtain final concentrations of the solutions in the range of 1, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25  µg/mL of Quercetin. Propyl paraben solution was made to a concentration of 25 µg/mL and used as an internal standard throughout the methodology. Preparation of Camellia sinensis extracts sample solutions 100 mg of extract sample was weighed and transferred in to 10ml volumetric flask and dissolved in a mixture of 5ml of 6M HCl and 5ml of mobile phase and sonicated for 15min. The obtained solution was filtered through a 0.45  µ pore size filter into a HPLC vial and loaded to the instrument. Method development and optimization The chromatographic conditions were optimized by changing the mobile phase compositions; buffer used in the mobile phase column stationaryphase and organic solvent. Finally a mixture of 0.1% orthophosphoric acid in water, acetonitrile and C18 column were used. A typical chromatogram obtained by using the aforementioned mobile phase and column are shown in fig. 2 of blank chromatogram and standard drug quercetin chromatogram is illustrated in Fig. 3. Method validation When a method has been optimized it must be validatedbefore put into practical use. By following the ICH guidelinesfor analytical method validation e Q2 (R1), the system suitability Test was performed and the validation characteristics elinearity, accuracy, precision, specificity, limits of detectionand quantitation were addressed. Preparation of calibration curve Aliquots of quercetin (containing 10- 250  µg/ml) were pipetted into series of 10ml volumetric flask from 100 µg/ml of stock solution followed by addition of propyl paraben containing 250 µg/ml and made up to 10ml with HPLC grade methanol to obtain the final concentrations of 1, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25  µg/ml of quercetin and 25 µg/ml of propyl paraben solutions were prepared. The responses were measured at 262 nm. The calibration curve was established by plotting the peak areas of Quercetin versus their concentrations. Assay Procedure The column was equilibrated for at least 30 min, with the mobile phase flowing through the system with a flow rate of 1ml/min. Detector was set at a wavelength of 262 nm. Two sets of the sample solutions were prepared containing aqueous and ethanolic extracts with mobile phase mixture. The retention time of Quercetin and Propyl paraben in bulk drug in two replicate samples were found to be 3.3 and 5.6 mins. The peak area of the Quercetin in sample was obtained and the regression equation of the drug concentration over the peak areas was calculated. The RP-HPLC method was used to estimate the amount of Quercetin in aqueous, ethanolic extracts of Camellia sinensis. The typical chromatograms of alcoholic and aqueous extracts are shown in fig. 4 and 5 respectively. It is found that alcoholic and aqueous extract contains 7.35  µg and 4.31  µg per 100 grams of the extract respectively. System suitability The system suitability test ensures the validity of the analyticalprocedure as well as confirms the resolution betweendifferent peaks of interest. A data from six injections ofstandard solutions were utilized for calculating system suitability parameters like %RSD (0.19), tailing factor (1.2), theoretical plates (10728) and resolution (7.8). Linearity and range To assess the linearity, calibration plots of quercetin in each dilution were constructed in the concentration range 1-25 µg/mL the correlation coefficients of quercetin was 0.9998 respectively. Accuracy and precision The accuracy and precision of the developed method was evaluated and results are expressed as percent recoveries 99.3 -101.7%. The precision study of intra-day and interday relative standard deviation was less than 2%, stating that method is more precise. Specificity The specificity test demonstrated that the used excipients did not interfere with the peak of the main compound. The results showed that the developed method was selective for determination Of Quercetin in Camellia sinensis extracts. Sensitivity The limit of detection and limit of quantitation decide aboutthe sensitivity of the method. Tests for the procedure wereperformed on samples containing very low concentrations of analytes based on the visual evaluation method. In thismethod, LOD (signal to noise ratio of 3:1) is determined by theanalysis of samples with known concentration of analyte and by establishing the minimum level at which the analyte can be reliably detected. Accordingly, the LOQ (signal to noise ratioof 10:1) is determined by the analysis of samples with known concentration of analytes and by establishing the minimumlevel at which the analyte can be quantified with acceptableaccuracy and precision (RSD RESULT AND DISCUSSION We developed and validated a simple and efficient reversed phase HPLC method for analysis of Quercetin in Camellia sinensis extracts. Method conditions were optimized by changing the mobile phase compositions; buffer used in the mobile phase, stationary phase and organic solvent. Finally a mixture of 0.1% orthophosphoric acid in water and acetonitrile and C18 column were used. In this study UFLC instrumentation with PDA detection, which is readily available in most analytical and pharmaceutical laboratories, was used. The analytical method was validated as per current International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) guidelines. In addition, in the present study,an internal standard was used to provide higher accuracy and precision of several substances tested, propyl paraben was chosen as the most appropriate internal standard. This substance is stable and does not interfere with the excipients present in of samples and composition of the diluent.Indeed, in the developed method, Propyl paraben was adequately separated from Quercetin. Moreover, its elution time was shorter, which resulted in a short run time of less than 10 min. In the accuracy of the method, recovery is in the range of 98.3-101.7% and standard deviation was less than 2% proves that method is more accurate and precise. The LOD and LOQ values of quercetin are 0.03  µg/ml and 0.05  µg/ml respectively. The described HPLC method was successfully applied for the determination of Quercetin in Camellia sinensis plant extracts. Fig. 2: Blank chromatogram of the method Fig. 3: Chromatogram of Quercetin (25  µg/ml) and Propyl paraben (Internal Standard) Table 2: Recovery studies of the method Table 3: Intraday and Inter day study precision of the method Fig. 4: Assay of Quercetin in Camellia sinensis Alcoholic Extract Fig. 5: Assay of Quercetin in Camellia sinensis Aqueous Extract Table 5: Assay of quercetin in alcoholic and aqueous extract Conclusion The proposed method is simple, accurate, precise, specific andlinear over the analysis ranges and was able to simultaneous determination of quercetin with internal standard in a short analytical run time. Hence the method can easily and conveniently applied for routine analysis in qualitycontrol laboratories and research institutes. Acknowledgements Authors extend their thanks to the JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS University, Mysore for providing the facilities to carry out the research work.

Origin of Paper :: Essays

The word paper comes from the Greek term for the ancient Egyptian writing material called papyrus, which was formed from beaten strips of papyrus plants. Papyrus was produced as early as 3000 BC in Egypt, and sold to ancient Greece and Rome. The establishment of Great library at Alexandria put a drain on the supply of Papyrus, so According to the Roman Varro, Pliny's Natural History records (xiii.21), parchment was invented under the patronage of Eumenes of Pergamum, to build his rival libray at Permagum. parchment or vellum, made of processed sheepskin or calfskin, replaced papyrus, as the papyrus plant requires subtropical conditions to grow. In China, documents were ordinarily written on bone or bamboo, making them very heavy and awkward to transport. Silk was sometimes used, but was normally too expensive to consider. Indeed, most of the above materials were rare and costly. While the Chinese court official Cai Lun is widely regarded to have first described the modern method of papermaking (inspired from wasps and bees) from wood pulp in AD 105, the 2006 discovery of specimens bearing written characters in north-west China's Gansu province suggest that paper was in use by the ancient Chinese military more than 100 years before Cai in 8 BCE [1]. Archà ¦ologically however, true paper without writing has been excavated in China dating from the 2nd-century BCE. In America, archaeological evidence indicates that paper was invented by the Mayas no later than the 5th century AD.[1] Called Amatl, it was in widespread use among Mesoamerican cultures until the Spanish conquest. In small quantities, traditional Maya papermaking techniques are still practiced today. Paper is considered to be one of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China. It spread slowly outside of China; other East Asian cultures, even after seeing paper, could not figure out how to make it themselves. Instruction in the manufacturing process was required, and the Chinese were reluctant to share their secrets. The paper was thin and translucent, not like modern western paper, and thus only written on one side. Books were invented in India, of Palm leaves (where we derive the name leaf for a sheet of a book). The technology was first transferred to Korea in 604 and then imported to Japan by a Buddhist priest, Dam Jing (曇å ¾ ´) from Goguryeo, around 610, where fibres (called bast) from the mulberry tree were used. After further commercial trading and the defeat of the Chinese in the Battle of Talas, the invention spread to the Middle East, Production was started in Baghdad, where the arabs invented a method to make a thicker sheet of paper.

The Psychodynamics of Depression

Depression – Psychodynamic Theory I have been interested in the mechanics of depression since childhood, when my mother ‘suffered with her nerves’ – her explanation of what I now recognise as a very severe melancholia defined by Burton in 1621 as â€Å"a kind of dotage without a fever, having for his ordinary companions fear and sadness, without any apparent occasion† (p739). My interest was further compounded by my clients, Valerie and Jo, when it become apparent to me that depression is one of the most common and debilitating phenomenon that I will probably have to encounter in my role as a Counsellor. Before beginning, it may be useful to briefly consider Freud’s warning that depression is not a homogenous group of conditions and that it probably involves more than one aetiology (Freud 1917). It can reflect underlying cultural and environmental trends in addition to physiological factors. (Desjerlais et al. 1995) A review of the literature reveals that research relating to the nature and origins of the psychodynamic theory of depression is rich in contributions to the theme, thus this essay of necessity represents a high-altitude skim over a massive topic. I will concentrate on authors who have made some of the most seminal contributions to the development of the theory, namely Abraham, Freud, Jacobson, Klein and Mahler. (There are, in actuality, numerous other pioneers in the cultivation of this theory, such as Malan, Sandler, Spiz, Bibring, Rado, Blatt, Benedek, Lindemann, Kohut, some of which, due to word limit, I have not included). Bowlby‘s theory of attachment, although not psychodynamic per se, is also considered, because the way in which people relate to loss of attachment appears relevant to our understanding of depression. Schore, who describes the neuroscience of attachment and how the brain of the parent and infant interact, has also been included The first thing we need to do is to be clear about four quite different ways that we may talk about depression. Jacobson referred to them as normal, neurotic, psychotic and grief reactions (1971 p19). What Jacobson (1971) referred to as normal depression, appears to be akin to what Klein referred to as the depressive position (Segal 1973). She, who it appears from my literature search (Klein 1940, Meltzer 1989, Spillius 1983, Money Kyle 1964), more than any other psychoanalytic pioneer viewed the infant as a miniature adult, found evidence of a â€Å"depressive position† from birth (Klein 1932 in Meltzer 1989 p37). This is essentially a state of health, a capacity to bear guilt, stay in touch with mental pain and emotional problems and bring thinking to bear on situations (Meltzer 1998). According to Klein we oscillate between our ability to stay with painful situations or seek temporary relief through splitting and projection (defence mechanisms), returning to the paranoid-schizoid position – the state of mind existing in babies ; one that is constantly returned to throughout life to greater or lesser degrees (Klein 1932 in Money Kyle 1964). Defence mechanisms are defined as tactics which the Ego develops to help deal with the ID and the Super Ego (Freud 1923). Freud introduced the term ‘ego' in â€Å"The Ego and The Id† (1923). He holds that only a portion of the mind is conscious and the rest lies hidden deep within the subconscious, ruled by conflicting forces of a super-strong libido (id) and super-controlling morality (superego) all translated through the ego, which attempts to balance the two through rationality (1923). Libido is described as the ‘energy of the sexual instincts‘ (Frued 1925). Neurotic depression or reactive depression can be understood as an exaggerated response to stress due to a weak state of ego strength combined with a failure of the external support system. Neurotic depression consists of a fall in self esteem after the ego has been abandoned by its ideal (Sandler 1965)). In modern day terminology, Jacobson's psychotic depression could be termed a severe depressive episode with psychotic symptoms (WHO 1992). Brown and Harris’ studies state that early loss appears tied to the emergence of psychotic versus neurotic symptom patterns (1986). Bowlby thought a mother-child attachment could not be broken in the first years of life without permanent and serious damage to the child’s future development (Bowlby 1973). Jacobson said there is fusion of the self and the object[1] epresentation within the ego and superego, â€Å"calling forth attack from an extremely pathological sadistic and idealised superego on a fused and highly devalued selfâ€Å" (Lund 1991, p533). The capacity for sadness is absent because the object and its representation are â€Å"devalued and united with the devalued representation of selfâ€Å" (p534). Th is appears to be evidenced by Jo who was referred for treatment of â€Å"severe anxiety and panic attacks,† and whose symptoms include extreme suspiciousness and intolerance of her peers, and delusional ideas relative to her mother. These psychotic-like symptoms could be related to the treatment she received from her mother who maltreated her and ultimately abandoned her when she was a toddler. Freud contrasted the mental processes involved in mourning with those of depression which he termed melancholia (1917); the latter could now be referred to as a severe depressive episode (WHO 1992). He regarded both mourning and depression as grief reactions to the loss of someone or something loved (1917). The distinction between the two conditions he described with the statement that in contrast to the mourner, the melancholic suffers â€Å"an extraordinary diminution in his self regard, and impoverishment of his ego on a grand scale† (1917 p 153). The explanation of this key difference appears to rest on the psychological concept of identification. Freud argued that part of the self had undergone a change in depression through its becoming identified with the lost object (1917). Object loss refers to traumatic separation from significant objects of attachment, usually mother (Bowlby 1973). In relation to the regressive identification Freud said â€Å"Thus the shadow of the object fell upon the ego†¦. † implying that the low self esteem of the melancholic is directly related to the condition of the introjected[2] object (Freud 1917 p243 ). Abraham also stressed the importance of introjection in melancholia (1911). Whereas mourning recognises the loss of an object that was â€Å"good† and â€Å"loved,† the melancholic’s relationship to the lost object is necessarily more ambivalent, i. e. a dense complex of love and hate (Klein 1940 in Money-Kyle 1998 p 142). Freud stressed the importance of heightened ambivalence in melancholia. He suggests that melancholia involves a regression to the oral narcissism phase of the libido, when an identification with the lost object occurs (1917). At the very early oral stage, described by Freud as primary narcissism ( 1914) and by Fairbairn as â€Å"mouth ego with a breast,† (1952 p87 ), the mouth feeds on the breast and is temporarily content. However, disturbances in feeding and other related irritations generate the agony of want and pains of anxiety. Consequently, fixation at the early oral phase results in the registration of a painful (bad) internal wanting and a nourishing (good) something somewhere in the vague uncharted outside of the child. Narcissism is described as an orientation towards internal objects, characterised by self-preoccupation, lack of empathy, and unconscious deficits in self-esteem (Kernburg 1969). Jo’s refusal to eat when in a severely depressed state could be viewed as her regression to oral narcissism. Freud also believed too many positive experiences during the first year of life could set an individual up for developing depression later on in life (Comer, 1992). He posited that if an individual is nurtured too much as an infant, she will not develop beyond the oral stage of development because there was never a need to. Although his theories emphasised the importance of early experience on later development, I understand from the literature it was Abraham (1911) who first made this distinction. He defined melancholia as an ambivalent feeling of love and hate toward the self that arises from an early infantile disappointment in love (1911). He too connected loss at the oral stage to maladaptive coping during subsequent losses later in life (1924). Abraham tells us that melancholic clients are inaccessible to any criticism of their mode of thinking (1924). In them can be seen the narcissistic character of thought and disregard for people who confront them with reality as in the case of Jo who missed a session following my interpretation about her eating habits. Expanding on this theme, Abraham summarised the dynamic factors underlying depression, as follows (1924): 1. A constitutional factor of an over accentuation of oral eroticism. 2. A special fixation of the libido at the oral stage. 3. A severe injury to infantile narcissism. 4. Occurrence of the primary disappointment pre-oedipal. [3] 5. Repetition of the primary disappointment in later life. These points appear to be evidenced by Valerie, my client in her late forties. Her husband died four years ago and she was referred by her GP because of â€Å"troublesome feelings of depression, isolation and lack of identityâ€Å". Her developmental history revealed that her mother had always been a source of tension, and had been severely depressed while Valerie was growing up. Valerie felt neglected and abandoned by her. She had been left with a negligent nanny after she was born and was ill with jaundice and gastro-enteritis. It took three months for the neglect to be discovered and for her to be returned home. Throughout her childhood, her mother remained predominantly in a withdrawn state in bed. However, she remained very dominating and ridiculing in manner of her daughter. In response to Valerie’s traumatic bereavement, her mother again seemed preoccupied and self-absorbed. Valerie’s opening remark to me was striking, â€Å"I want to be a calm sensible person with no feelingsâ€Å". Since her mother spent her time criticising Valerie and ridiculing her separate thinking (her mother resented Valerie’s creativity having thrown the contents of the rubbish bin on one of her prize paintings), this comment appears to represent her wish to conform to her mother's requirements. However, this statement appears to underline the central dynamic to understanding depression, for with the desire for identification with an ideal object, there appears no room for separate thinking or expression of needy feelings (Jacobson 1964). All tensions related to one’s own needs and how the idealised object is ignoring them gets projected and then experienced somatically (Abraham 1924). The lack of availability of a containing mother[4] was graphically illustrated in a dream, where Valerie went to get food from a supermarket. There was no basket and she came out, arms full of tin cans. Suddenly, her mother's sister shouted from a house window: â€Å"Where is your mother? † Valerie dropped the cans and opened her mouth to speak. It was full of blood and bits of glass. Valerie also reported to me another dream where she swallowed two â€Å"tablets of stones† that lay heavy on her stomach. This could be symbolic of the unresponsive stone breasts of her mother. Also it reminds me of the Ten Commandments, two tablets of stone not to be disobeyed (her mother). The oral origins seem apparent, with the brittleness of the breast and the aggressiveness to it. This history seems to confirm all Abraham's points. The constitutionally inherited family history of depression, her mother having a breakdown when Valerie was born; The fixation of the libido at the oral level, with the sensation of having swallowed the tablets of stone breasts when depressed and also the oral aggressiveness, with the cut glass in the mouth. The severe injury to infantile narcissism was evidenced by her mother's unresponsiveness. The first disappointment pre-oedipally, starting at birth with being left with the neglectful nanny; with the repetition of the primary disappointment in later life and with her mother's lack of support at the time of her husband’s bereavement. Valerie told me she felt ‘guilt and shame’ about ‘being depressed‘. To explain the peculiar intensity of the sense of guilt in melancholia, Freud suggested that the destructive component of the instincts had entered the superego and turned against it (1917). He also noted in some depressed people a high proneness to guilt; ‘that tendency toward self-reproach which death invariably leaves among the survivors. ’ (Freud 1925 in Stengel 1969 p 237). He pointed out the increased severity of moral judgement that occurs in depression, and described the setting up of a ‘critical agency’ as part of child development, which ‘henceforth will judge the ego’ (Freud 1923 in O'Shaughnessy 1999 p861). This is the superego and Freud suggested that â€Å"the relationship between the ego and the superego (see definition page 1) becomes completely intelligible if they are carried back to the child’s attitude towards his parentsâ€Å" (p861). The superego is coloured by the child’s own hostile and rivalrous feelings, so that ‘the more a child controls his aggression towards another, the more tyrannical does his superego subsequently become’ (p862). The self-recriminations seen clinically are recriminations made of a loved object that has been displaced (Freud 1923) as the following exchange between Valerie and myself appears to illustrate: V. Life sucks T. It sucks? V. Yeah, but then why should it be any different? I’m so ghastly and useless – I don’t deserve to be happy. When Valerie announces ‘I’m so ghastly and useless – I don’t deserve to be happy,’ she is perhaps not really criticising herself, but a purported ideal that has let her down. The self-tormenting is then a tormenting of the ideal object (mother) that had abandoned her at a time of need. The sadomasochistic process of self-criticism, that so dominates depression, goes on in a relentless fashion. No true mourning, with relinquishment of the object, can occur because of the unresolved ambivalent dependence on an ideal object (Freud 1923). Valerie’s grief at her husband’s death could be seen as an extension of her more hidden yearning for her mother’s love. Her unrealistic hopes based on compensatory exaggerations of unsatisfied wishes and needs, may have laid down a vulnerability to depressive illness because these are unsustainable in adulthood. Klein described an early ore-oedipal stage to the formation of the superego, with a very harsh superego in evidence at the oral stage, which becomes modified over time, with experiences, to becoming more benign, less demanding and more tolerant towards human frailities (Money-Kyle 1964). She comments on clinging to the pathological early severe superego as: â€Å"the idea of perfection is so compelling as it disproves the idea of disintegration† (Klein 1932 in Meltzer 1989 p270). In healthy development the superego may take on, over time, a benign guiding role, but in those with a predisposition to depression, the superego can be â€Å"a pure culture of the death instinct which often succeeds in driving the ego into death† (Freud 1917, p332). This may have been the case with Valerie’s deceased husband who was also diagnosed as depressed; she feels his death may have been suicide. It is interesting that he told her his body was â€Å"tired of livingâ€Å", perhaps suggesting that the ego was located in the body awaiting to be attacked by the superego. The ego can only kill itself if, as a result of a return to the object-cathexis, it can treat itself as an object (1917). Object cathexis occurs in the Id and is the investment of energy in the image of an object. Suicide also harbours murderous feelings towards others (Campbell & Hale 1991). Kohut viewed depression as coming from a lack of good experiences with what he termed the mirroring self-object[5], such as having interested and involved parents (1971); this results in problems with self-esteem regulation. Parkin considers that a fall in self esteem is the hallmark of ‘all simple depression’ (by this, I imagine, he means what Jacobson referred to as neurotic depression), and a heightening of self criticism to be the hallmark of melancholia (I imagine, he is referring to Freud’s theory. ) (Parkin 1976). It is the loss of self-esteem, many psychodynamic theorists claim, that starts a person down the path of depression (Comer, 1992). Jacobson stresses the crucial importance in depression of the loss of self esteem and the feelings of impoverishment, helplessness, weakness and inferiority (1971). Freud believed feelings of anger and self-hatred develop from thoughts about unresolved conflicts. As a result of feelings of self-hatred, the individual feels shameful and worthless and loses her self-esteem (Comer, 1992). Jo suffers shameful feelings about herself including taking anxiolytic medication to ‘dampen down my distress‘. She commented that her self esteem is ‘as low as my socks. ’ She lost her job as a result of her panic attacks. Gaylin (1968) reasons, if a person is depressed over the loss of a job it is not because the job symbolizes a loved object but, like a loved object, â€Å"it can symbolize one's self-esteem† (p. 7). Klein said that whether an individual loses her self-esteem depends on the quality of her relationship as an infant with her caregiver during the first year of life (Wetzel 1984). She claimed the Oedipus Complex to be a part of the depressive position, occurring at the oral stage of development (Segal, 1984). Her work was criticized, especially by Anna Freud, but the significance of her theory appears to be that, if individuals have not had the early experiences that enable them to internalise a good object, then mourning as adults will be complicated by significant depression (Wetzel 1984). Klein's interpretation to the origin of depression closely resembles that of Abraham and Freud's theories that an individual can develop a predisposition for the illness, but her contributions appear to have been criticised on the grounds of seeking to establish an exact parallel between the child’s developmental stages and adult depressive illness (Spillius 1983). I understand from the literature that most psychoanalysts accept infantile precursors to depressive illness but stop short of Klein’s view. Mahler acknowledged that the mother-child relationship is crucial in the development of basic moods, including depression (1966). However, in contrast to Klein, she believed the depressive position does not occur at the oral stage, but later in toddler-hood, during the separation-individuation period[6] (1966). More recently other authors have been trying to differentiate two types of depression basing themselves in part on the writings of Freud on the processes of oral incorporation and superego formation, and considering that it would not be fruitful to integrate these two mechanisms from such distinct phases of psychic development (Spitz 1947 p 723). Blatt subsequently conceptualised depression in accordance with the child’s level of object representations and made the distinction between anaclitic depression and introjective depression. Anaclitic is oral where there is relatively low evidence of guilt. Introjective depression is more oedipal based where the sufferer may harbour intense feelings of guilt because the superego is overly harsh (Blatt 1974). Bowlby thought depression resulted from a failure of secure attachment early in life (1973). He described a series of attachment and protest behaviours which, if not responded to, would proceed to a state of despair in infants and finally to states of detachment. This work has burgeoned into the field now known as attachment research. To summarize this extensive body of research very briefly, we now know the attachment that the child establishes with the caregiver during development may be the prototype for all subsequent bonds with other objects (1973). The capacity to develop close and loving relationships in adulthood protects against depression and this is influenced by the attachment patterns developed in childhood. Anxiously attached individuals seek interpersonal contact and are excessively dependant on others. Compulsively self-reliant individuals are excessively autonomous and avoid close intimate interpersonal relationships (1973). Both of these preoccupations can create a vulnerability to depression. In agreement with Klein, Bowlby suggests that anger and guilt are part of mourning reactions. It is not the presence of anger or guilt that is pathological in mourning but their appropriateness that is the crucial issue (1969). Schore describes the neuroscience of attachment and how the brain of the parent and infant interact (2003 ). He speaks in depth about the neurobiology of the developing mind during the first three years of life and how the right brain processes are integrally involved in attachments and the development of the self. He spells out very clearly how insensitive parenting leads to emotion dysregulation patterns in childhood and later in adulthood. He understands insecure attachment as emotion dysregulation and that psychotherapy is the process of changing neural patterns in the brain, the right brain in particular. There are clear points of contact between the attachment perspective and some psychodynamic ideas. As mentioned, one of Klein’s hypotheses was that the reaction to loss occurring later in the life cycle will be influenced by revived aspects of losses experienced at the earliest stages in development (Segal 1973). The early loss of the maternal object may result in depression later in life if the infant has not yet been able to establish a representation of a loved object securely within herself (Segal 1973). There appear to be clear parallels between this formulation and the idea of maladaptive internal working models of attachment in Bowlby’s thinking about early loss and depression. Evaluation Each of the theories probably has a contribution to make to the overall picture especially when we recollect that depression is a complex rather than a unitary phenomenon (Freud 1917). Common to all these theories is their invoking of the crucial role of the infantile phase of development. Each of them asserts that problems in the trajectory to eventual adulthood commence in early childhood and can constitute a vulnerability to depression. Following my research, I am hopefully better placed to help my clients. For instance during our sessions Valerie is able to reflect how her deceased husband had provided her with an experience of being loved and cared for that she had longed for from her mother. Working through unresolved feelings of loss arising from initial losses and disentangling them from feelings related to present losses may be invaluable in the resolution of her depression As for Jo, we have spent considerable time exploring her panic attacks and her fear of expressing her depressive feelings. She fears that ‘If I start crying, I may never stop’ and that nobody will be able to bear her pain. This links with Bion’s concept of containment (Bion 1962) as defined on page 5. If I can contain her pain and grief then this may help Jo internalise a sense that her pain can be borne and thought about. Finally, I am reminded that my own experiences of depression can either interfere with or enhance my capacity to help. Self reflection and supervision are crucial if I am to make the best use of my humanity. REFERENCES ICD-10. Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines: World Health Organization, 1992. Abraham K. 1911-1968)Selected papers of Karl Abraham. New York: Basic Books Inc. Bion WR. (1962)Learning from Experience. London: Karnac. 97. Blatt S. (1974). Levels of object representation in anaclitic and introjective depression. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 29, 107-157. Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss, Vol. 1: Attachment. New York: Basic Books. Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss, Vol. 2: Separation -anxiety and anger. New York: Basic Books Brown & Harris (1986). Life events and illness. New York: The Guilford Press. Burton R. (1920)Anatomy of Melancholy. New York: Tudor Campbell & Hale (1991). Suicidal acts. In J. Holmes (Ed. ), Textbook of psychotherapy in psychiatric practice (pp. 287-306). Comer R. (1992). Abnormal psychology. New York: W. H. Freeman & Company Desjerlais et al (1995) World Mental Health: Problems and Priorities in Low-Income Countries. London: Oxford University Press. Fairbairn W. (1952)Psychoanalytic Studies of the Personality. London: Routledge Freud S. (1917). Mourning and melancholia. In J. Strachey (Ed. ), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud London: Hogarth Press Freud S. (1914). On Narcisism. The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud V. 14. London: Hogarth Press Freud S. (1923/1960). The ego and the id. J. Riviere (Trans. ), J. Strachey (Ed. ). New York: W. W. Norton. Freud S. (1914). Beyond the Pleasure Principle. The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud V. 14. London: Hogarth Press Freud S. (1925)(trans. J. Riviere) Collected Papers. Vol. I. , London: Hogarth. Jacobson, E. (1964) The Self and the Object World. New York, International Universities Press Jacobson E. 1971)Depression: Comparative Studies of Normal, Neurotic & Psychotic Conditions. New York: International Universities Press Kernberg O, (1969)A contribution to the Ego-psychological critique of the Kleinian school. Int J Psychoanal 50: 317 – 33 Klein M. (1940). Writings of Melanie Klein. London: Hogarth. Vol. 1. p344-369. Klein M. (1932). The psycho-analysis of children. London: Hogarth Press. Roger Money-Kyl e The Writings of Melanie Klein. (Ed. ). 4 Vols. New York, Free (1964-75)Press. Kohut H. (1971)The Analysis of the Self. New York, International Universities Press Lund C (1991)Psychotic depression: psychoanalytic psychopathology in relation to treatment and management, B J Psychiatry 158: 523 – 8 Mahler M. (1966). Some preliminary notes on the development of basic moods, including depression. Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal, 250-258. Meltzer, D. (1998)The Kleinian Development (New Edition). London: Karnac Books O'Shaughnessy E. (1999)Relating to the Superego. Int. J. Psychoanal; 80, p861-870. Parkin A (1976)Melancholia: A reconsideration, J Am Psychoanalytical Assoc. 24: 123 – 39 Parkes C. 1972) Bereavement: Studies of grief in adult life. New York: International Universities Press. Rubin R 1989Neuroendocrine aspects of primary endogenous depressiion VIII. Psychoneuroendocrinology; 14(3):217–29. Sandler J (1965)Notes on childhood depression. Int J Psychoanal 46: 88 – 96 Schore A (2003)Affect Regulation and The Repair of the Self New York: WW Norton & Co, Inc. Segal H. (1973)Introduction to the work of Melan ie Klein. London: Hogarth Press. Spitz R. (1946) Anaclitic depression: An inquiry into the genesis of psychiatric conditions in early childhood II. Psychoanalytical Study of the Child, 2, 53. Spillius, E. (1983). Some developments from the work of Melanie Klein. , Int. J. Psychoanal. , 64:321-332. Stengel E (1969). Suicide and Attempted Suicide. Harmondsworth: Pelican Books. Wetzel, J. W. (1984). Clinical handbook of depression. New York: Gardner Press. ———————– [1]Objects are primarily formed from early interactions with (usually) parents. (Klein 1940) [2] introjection means to incorporate (characteristics of a person or object) into one’s own psychic unconsciously (Klein 1940). 3] Oedipal can be described as unconscious sexual desire in a child, especially a male child, for the parent of the opposite sex, usually occurring around the age of 3 – 5 years and accompanied by hostility to the parent of the same sex. Pre-oedipal means prior to the oedipal phase in development (Freud 1923). [4] containing mother refers to the process whereby the infant’s emo tions can be held in mind and ‘digested’ by the mother, who can then return them in a more manageable form. Infants need repeated experiences of containment (Bion 1962), in order to develop ways of dealing with their own distress, i. . before they can introject the containing ‘good enough mother’ (Winnicott 1960a) and feel the mother as a definite internalized presence (Bion 1962). [5] â€Å"mirroring self object† is loosely translated as â€Å"mother,† for in the external world it is most often the mother who performs the function. The gleam in her eye mirrors the infant’s self. (Bion 1962). [6] Mahler described separation-individuation as the steps through which the infant passes in developing a more stable awareness of separateness from the mother (1966).

Free Essays on Birches

"shattering and avalanching" (11) give the feeling of disaster and perhaps fear or sorrow. A disturbance on earth is suggested by the "heaps of broken glass" (12) that make it seem as if "the inner dome of heaven had fallen" (13). Frost also lends sound to his description of the branches as â€Å"they click upon themselves As the breeze rises† (7-8). This may be a spin on the idea that problems and experiences "click" off of people, however, the click is not a snap implying that problems do not break people. Frost further explains the bra... Free Essays on Birches Free Essays on Birches Explication of â€Å"Birches† by Robert Frost According to the speaker and author Robert Frost, enduring life’s challenges can be easier by finding a balance between imagination and real life. The tone of the poem is nostalgic. The poem is divided into four parts: an introduction, an analysis of the bending of birch trees, an imaginative untrue analysis of the farm boy swinging on birches, and a wish Frost makes, wanting to return to his childhood. All of these sections have underlying philosophical meanings. Personification, alliteration, metaphor, and other sound devices support these meanings and themes. â€Å"Birches† exibits no rhythm sceme or specific line length which suggests it is free verse. In the first section of the poem, Frost explains the appearance of the birches. Frost wants to believe that the branches of the birches bend and sway because of a boy swinging on them. However, Frost suggests that repeated ice storms are what bend the branches. Frost compares the breaking away of the ice from the trees to the â€Å"dome of heaven† shattering (Line 13). This could be a metaphor for life using imagery. The ice can symbolize difficult times that come in life, while the ice breaking away may represent renewed hope for the future. Initially, the forest scene describes, "crystal shells Shattering and avalanching on the snow crust Such heaps of broken glass to sweep away" (10-12). The words "shattering and avalanching" (11) give the feeling of disaster and perhaps fear or sorrow. A disturbance on earth is suggested by the "heaps of broken glass" (12) that make it seem as if "the inner dome of heaven had fallen" (13). Frost also lends sound to his description of the b ranches as â€Å"they click upon themselves As the breeze rises† (7-8). This may be a spin on the idea that problems and experiences "click" off of people, however, the click is not a snap implying that problems do not break people. Frost further explains the bra...

Forbes and the Power of LinkedIn for Job Seekers

Forbes and the Power of LinkedIn for Job Seekers Yet another article has come out in Forbes confirming the power of LinkedIn for job seekers. In LinkedIn Still Rules As The Top Job Search Technology Tool, Survey Says, Susan Adams reports on a new survey of North American job seekers, hiring managers, recruiters and HR executives. The word from Right Management, who conducted the survey, is that â€Å"almost 100% of job seekers use LinkedIn as their number one social media site for job hunting. Hiring managers also prefer Linked in over other sites by two to one.† Additional findings, some related to LinkedIn and some on other topics, include: 18% of job seekers say they have had video interviews in the past year – more than double the percent from a year ago. 45% of hiring managers say they expect video resumes to become more common. And 2/3 predict video interviews will spike in the next three years. 22% of job seekers use smartphone job search apps. Just 34% of job candidates report that they have a land line! (I seem to be living in the dark ages on this one). 94% of job seekers say they prefer LinkedIn as their chief job hunting tool, followed by Google+ then Twitter. Gen X candidates rank Facebook, Google+ and Twitter evenly. Hiring managers also rank LinkedIn first, followed by Facebook, then Google+, with Twitter in a distant fourth place. Social media sites like LinkedIn are the top way to search for candidates. Hiring managers and recruiters also still use company websites and employee referrals. In contrast, job boards and even recruiters themselves are on the decline, though 65% still use job boards. More than half use social media to post jobs and three quarters use it to find possible hires. Networking is still the best way to find success as a job seeker! This is one thing that doesn’t change over time. Don’t make the mistake of using technology to the exclusion of human contact. Ms. Adams emphasizes that â€Å"it’s essential to have an up-to-date LinkedIn profile so hiring managers and recruiters can find you. It can also be useful to hunt for openings using LinkedIn job listings or company sites. But it can †¦ be more effective to figure out what you want to do and where you want to work and to find a way in before a job is listed.† Ms. Adams’ recommendation and mine: If you see a job listing for a position of interest, use your networks, both online and off, to make human contact. It’s not unusual for a job seeker to submit hundreds of applications without receiving a single response. So pick up the phone and set up a face-to-face meeting. Talk to people, make a human connection, and find out more about the position before you apply. LinkedIn is still the place to start with your job search. But it’s not the place to finish.

Set size and search type effect on search time during visual search Essay

Set size and search type effect on search time during visual search task - Essay Example Feature Integration theory There are a number of researches with various stimuli, while most prevalent idea proposed for human visual search comes from A. Treisman (1980), who conducted a research illustrating Feature integration theory. It asserts that a visual search is faster in presence of dissimilar background and the number of distracters involved in background do not affect the time consumption in case of a feature search (a search that involves identification of a direct feature like color, shape, orientation or curvature). On the other hand, a conjunction search is affected widely with the number of distracters presented in the background. A conjunction search is defined as a search which does not involve a direct feature but a similarity of multiple features among the various objects. (For example ‘blue square’ has similarities with ‘blue triangle’ and ‘red square’.) Consequent of the propositions, feature integration theory illustrate s that those two searches consists of different methodology for human visual search. Those methods are characterized as parallel searches and serial searches for feature and conjunctive patterns. As further illustrated in Feature Integration theory, feature search and conjunction search differ widely on time consumption patterns as conjunction search follows a twofold process which requires identifying the features and categorizing the conjunctions to create a pattern of search. The distracters found in the patterns are responsible for time consumptions. The feature-integration theory of attention suggests that attention must be directed serially to each stimulus in a display whenever conjunctions of more than one separable feature are needed to characterize or distinguish the possible objects (Treisman and Gelade, 1980) There are number of arguments and theoretical results that involve some serious diversions and modification to this theory. However, most of the theories involve th e base of feature integration which asserts that there are found clear differences in the types of searches when direct features are involved or eliminated. Other theories and Guided search In contrast with feature integration theory there are some proposition which offers different arguments and researches for visual search. A major theory is in the propositions of Wolfe (1989) who offers a broad research for how visual search is not limited only to the factors if the searches are parallel or serial but it also depends largely on the motivating factors for a visual search. Wolfe presents this theory as the guided search theory. In his propositions, a number of subjects were passed through the experiments with varying number of stimuli and the data outcome was measured over the graphs to provide a serious deflection from Feature integration patterns. Subjects searched sets of items for targets defined by conjunctions of color and form, color and orientation, or color and size. Set s ize was varied and reaction times (RT) were measured. For many unpracticed subjects, the slopes of the resulting RT x Set Size functions are too shallow to be consistent with Treisman's feature integration model, which proposes serial, self-terminating search for conjunctions (Jeremy M. Wolfe, 1989). As those results offer a diversion in self-terminating s

Peer rejection Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Peer rejection - Term Paper Example dolescent is becoming hostile, aggressive or even violent and taking inherent action to ensure that the child takes positive steps to deal with a situation more productively. Those with anger management problems often manifest their hostilities in the form of fighting, destruction of property, verbal abuses, manifesting angry outbursts, or even manipulative behaviors against others. This essay explores the issue of the development of anger issues during the adolescent stage of development as a direct outcome of peer rejection. The essay further investigates treatment methodologies for adolescents that have developed anger management problems as a result of peer rejection, focusing on the implications of this hostility on current adolescent development and future adult social adjustment. Treatment methods differ in curbing anger management problems with adolescents and this research essay conducts a comparison and contrast to determine which treatment strategies might be most effective for a peer-rejected adolescent youth that has developed hostility problems. During the adolescent stage of development, peer opinion and acceptance become primary needs as the youth seeks establishment of a sense of social identity. It is during this period where adolescents define their sense of self-importance based on their ability to fit in with peers. When adolescents have perceived a positive sense of belonging, it can lead to increased self-esteem which has fundamental implications as to whether the adolescent becomes fully self-actualized in adulthood, or reaching the full pinnacle of one’s achievement capacity and maximizing one’s fullest potential. Hence, peer rejection during adolescence has significant implications for whether the adolescent is fully prepared to transition into a well-adjusted and self-venerating adult. Peer rejection that occurs during adolescence can lead to the youth’s inability to self-regulate their emotional states (Trentacosta and Shaw,